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Areas are very important for OSPF To minimize router traffic, every area has one El Supremo router that relays information to all of the other routers in the area This router is called the designated router (DR) A second router is called the backup designated router (BDR) in case the DR isn t available As the routers first begin to communicate, a DR and BDR election automatically begins The router with the lowest total priority wins In this case Router B becomes the DR and Router A becomes the BDR This actually takes place during the initial Hello packet exchange (Figure 8-36) In most cases you simply let the routers decide, but you can manually set a router as the DR and BDR if you desire (which is rare)

L { f (t t )} =

You should always check this unit configuration information before performing any upgrade to the system Nothing is a bigger waste of time than upgrading something to the same version it already is

Figure 8-36

The Port Statistics Report submenu (Figure 7-13) allows you to examine a variety of network statistics on a port-by-port basis This information, explained in the following table, can be very helpful in troubleshooting a problem It can also be periodically checked via the console or an SNMP management station to verify the condition of the network segment

Once again, we can proceed with a simple change of variables We let u = t to from which it follows immediately that du = dt Then

Once the elections take place, it s finally time to get some routes distributed across the area This part is actually almost boring Routers A and B send a separate LSA telling all routers in the area that they are connected to Network IDs X and Y, respectively These are not the entire routing tables, but rather only a single route that is almost instantly dispersed across the routers in the OSPF area (Figure 8-37)

Figure 7-13: Port Statistics Report Total Good Frames Total Good Octets Source Address Changes Runts A cumulative count of good frames The octets, or bytes, received in good frames Total number of different MAC addresses used on the port Frame fragments usually caused by collisions A count higher than the Collisions count (next field) could reflect a faulty network adapter card These occur routinely in Ethernet networks, but a high number indicates excessive network traffic These occur if the hub detects a problem with the device connected to the port Disconnecting and reconnecting a device can cause a small number of auto-partitions, but a higher number suggests a problem Usually a result of a cable problem but can sometimes be caused by a bad network adapter card When troubleshooting, check the cable plant first

L { f (t t )} =

Cost to Network ID X through Router A = 0 Cost to Network ID Y through Router C = 20 Cost to Network ID Y through Router B = 12 A 10 1 B 1 C 10 Cost to Network ID Y through Router D = 0 Cost to Network ID X through Router C = 20 Cost to Network ID X through Router C = 12 D

Frame Check Sequence Errors These, like alignment errors, are a result of a cable problem but can sometimes be caused by a bad network adapter card Frames Too Long Can be caused by hardware or cable errors, but most likely are the result of protocols other than TCP/IP running on the attached station Errors within a frame; if these occur, they are usually associated with another error that can indicate the source of the problem Can indicate a bad network adapter card Usually caused by the segment being too large; check total cable distances between stations and repeaters Usually the result of a cable problem, but can also be caused by a bad network adapter card Indicate the number of times a port is isolated (disconnected) from the network, usually the result of a cable problem These occur if the hub detects a problem, with the device connected to the port Disconnecting and reconnecting a device can cause a small number of false carriers, but a higher number suggests a problem Indicative of interference being introduced onto the network

Cost to Network ID X through Router A = 1 Cost to Network ID X through Router C = 11 Cost to Network ID Y through Router C = 11 Cost to Network ID Y through Router A = 21

Notice that s and to are not integration variables, so given any term that is a function of these variables alone, we can just pull it outside the integral This gives